Dalek Empire: Difference between revisions

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{{otheruses}}
:''This article is about the term "Dalek Empire" as used in the [[Doctor Who Universe]]. For other uses of the term, see [[Dalek Empire (disambiguation)]].''
{{dablink|"Imperium Romanum", [[Latin]] for "Roman Empire", redirects here. For the video game, see [[Imperium Romanum (video game)]].}}
{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}


{{Infobox Former Country
The [[Dalek]]s formed the '''Dalek Empire''' in an unknown period in their history, presumably after venturing into space from the [[planet]] [[Skaro]]. The Daleks would later seek to expand their empire into all of history as well, using [[time travel]]. It still centred itself around Skaro. ([[DW]]: ''[[The Evil of the Daleks]]'', [[DW]]: ''[[Day of the Daleks]]'')
|native_name = {{aut|Imperium Romanorum}}{{#tag:ref|Other possibilities are ''Senatus PopulusQue Romanus'', the official name of the Roman state and ''Romania'', a later term, which appears in Greek and Latin sources from the fourth century onward and was adopted by the [[Byzantine Empire]]. (See Wolff, R.L. "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople". In: ''Speculum'', 23 (1948), pp. 1-34 (pp. 2-3).)|group=nb}}<br> {{Polytonic|Βασιλεία Ῥωμαίων}}
|conventional_long_name = Roman Empire {{#tag:ref|Other possibilities are ''Imperium Romanorum'' and ''Romania''. ''Res publica'', as a term denoting the Roman "commonwealth" in general, can refer to both the Republican and the Imperial era, while ''Imperium Romanorum'' is used to denote the territorial extent of Roman authority. The later term ''Romania'', which was eventually carried over to [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantium]], appears in Greek and Latin sources from the fourth century onward. (See Wolff, R.L. "Romania: The Latin Empire of Constantinople". In: ''Speculum'', 23 (1948), pp. 1-34 (pp. 2-3).)|group=nb}}
|conventional_long_name = Roman Empire
|common_name = Roman Empire
|national_motto = {{lang|la|[[SPQR{{!}}''Senatus Populusque Romanus'']]}} (SPQR){{spaces|2}}<small>([[Latin]])<br />"The Senate and People of Rome"</small>
|era        = Classical antiquity
|status      = Empire
|continent  = Europe, Asia, Africa
|region      = Mediterranean
|government_type = [[Autocracy]],<br>[[Dictatorship]]
|p1          = Roman Republic
|flag_p1    = Spqrstone.jpg
|s1          = Byzantine Empire
|flag_s1    = Flag of Palaeologus Emperor.svg
|s2          = Western Roman Empire
|flag_s2    = Labarum.svg
|event_start = [[Augustus|Octavian]] proclaimed [[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]
|year_start  = 27 BC
|event_end  = Deposition of [[Romulus Augustus]] / [[Fall of Constantinople]] <sup>*</sup>
|year_end    = AD 476 / 1453
|event_pre  = Battle of Actium
|date_pre    = 2 September 31 BC
|event1      = [[Diocletian]] splits imperial administration between east and west
|date_event1 = 285
|event2      = [[Constantine I]] declares [[Constantinople]] new imperial capital
|date_event2 = 330
|event3      = Death of [[Theodosius the Great]], followed by permanent division of the Empire into eastern and western halves
|date_event3 = 395
|image_coat  = Vexilloid of the Roman Empire.svg
|symbol_type  = [[:commons:Image:Vexilloid_of_the_Roman_Empire.svg#Summary|Vexilloid]]
|image_map  = RomanEmpire_117.svg
|image_map_caption = The Roman Empire under [[Trajan]] in 117 AD
|capital    = [[Rome]]<small><br/>(44 BC – AD 286)</small><br/>[[Constantinople]]<small><br/>(From 330)</small><br/>[[Ravenna]]<br/>[[Milan]]<br/>[[Nicomedia]]
|common_languages = [[Latin]], [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]
|religion    = [[Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|Roman Imperial Cult]]<small><br/>(to 380)</small><br/>[[Christianity]]<small><br/>(from 380)
|currency    = [[Quadrans]], [[Semis]], [[As (coin)|As]], [[Dupondius]], [[Quinarius]],  [[Sestertius]], [[Denarius]], [[Aureus]], [[Solidus (coin)|Solidus]]
|leader1    = [[Augustus]]
|leader2      = [[Theodosius I]]
|leader3      = [[Romulus Augustus]] / [[Constantine XI]]
|year_leader1 = 27 BC – AD 14
|year_leader2 = 379 – 395
|year_leader3 = 475 — 476 / 1449 — 1453
|title_leader = [[Roman Emperor|Emperor]]
|title_representative = [[Roman consul|Consul]]
|representative1 =
|representative2 =
|year_representative1 =
|year_representative2 =
|legislature  = [[Roman Senate]]
||stat_year1  = 25 BC<ref name=size>{{cite journal|journal=Social Science History |title=Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D. |first=[[Rein Taagepera|Rein]] |last=[[Rein Taagepera|Taagepera]] |volume=3 |issue=3/4 |year=1979 |pages=125 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0145-5532%281979%293%3A3%2F4%3C115%3ASADOEG%3E2.0.CO%3B2-H |doi=10.2307/1170959}}</ref><ref>John D. Durand, ''Historical Estimates of World Population: An Evaluation'', 1977, pp. 253-296.</ref>
|stat_area1  = 2750000
|stat_year2  = 50<ref name=size/>
|stat_pop1  = 56800000
|stat_area2  = 4200000
|stat_year3  = 117<ref name=size/>
|stat_area3  = 5000000
|stat_pop3  = 88000000
|stat_year4  = 390 <ref name=size/>
|stat_area4  = 4400000
|footnotes  = * These events marked the end of the [[Western Roman Empire]] (286 – 476)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/507739/Roman-Empire|title=Roman Empire -- Britannica Online Encyclopedia|publisher=www.britannica.com|accessdate=2008-07-09}}</ref> and of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] (330 – 1453), respectively.
}}
The '''Roman Empire''' was the [[Roman Republic|post-Republican]] phase of the [[Ancient Rome|ancient Roman civilization]], characterised by an [[autocracy|autocratic]] form of government and large territorial holdings in [[Europe]] and around the [[Mediterranean]].<ref>"Roman Empire," Microsoft® Encarta® Online Encyclopedia 2008</ref> The term is used to describe the Roman state during and after the time of the first emperor, [[Augustus]]. The 500-year-old [[Roman Republic]], which preceded it, had been weakened by several [[Roman civil wars|civil wars]].{{#tag:ref|During the struggles of the Late Republic hundreds of senators were killed or died, and the [[Roman Senate]] had been refilled with supporters of the [[First Triumvirate]] and later those of the [[Second Triumvirate]].|group=nb}} Several events are commonly proposed to mark the transition from Republic to Empire, including [[Julius Caesar|Julius Caesar's]] appointment as perpetual [[Roman dictator|dictator]] (44 BC), the victory of [[Augustus|Octavian]] at the [[Battle of Actium]] (2 September 31 BC), and the Roman Senate's granting to Octavian the [[honorific]] ''[[Augustus (honorific)|Augustus]]'' (16 January 27 BC).{{#tag:ref|Octavian/Augustus officially proclaimed that he had saved the Roman Republic and carefully disguised his power under republican forms; [[consul]]s continued to be elected, [[tribune]]s of the plebeians continued to offer legislation, and senators still debated in the [[curia|Roman Curia]]. However, it was Octavian, and every effective emperor thereafter, who influenced everything and controlled the final decisions, and in final analysis, had the [[Roman legions|legions]] to back him up, if it ever became necessary.|group=nb}}


The [[Latin (language)|Latin]] term [[Imperium#Territories|''Imperium Romanorum'']] (Roman Empire), probably the best-known Latin expression where the word ''imperium'' denotes a territory, indicates the part of the world under Roman rule. Roman expansion began in the days of the Republic, but reached its zenith under Emperor [[Trajan]]. At this territorial peak, the Roman Empire controlled approximately 5,900,000&nbsp;km² (2,300,000&nbsp;sq&nbsp;mi) of land surface. Because of the Empire's vast extent and long endurance, Roman influence upon the language, religion, architecture, philosophy, law, and government of nations around the world lasts to this day.
During the [[Dalek Civil War]], the Empire broke into a faction known as the [[Imperial Dalek]]s, loyal to [[Davros]] (now calling himself the [[Dalek Emperor|Emperor]]) and another, the [[Renegade Dalek]]s, loyal to the [[Supreme Dalek]]. Waging war with each other, [[Seventh Doctor|the Doctor]] seemed to have defeated both factions. ([[DW]]: ''[[Remembrance of the Daleks]]'')


In the late 3rd century AD, [[Diocletian]] established the practice of dividing authority between two emperors, one in the western part of the empire and one in the east, in order to better administer the vast territory. For the next century this practice continued, with occasional periods in which one emperor assumed complete control. However, after the death of [[Theodosius I|Theodosius]] in 395, no single emperor would ever again hold genuine supremacy over a united Roman Empire.<ref>Chester G. Starr, ''A History of the Ancient World, Second Edition.''  Oxford University Press, 1974. pp. 670-678.</ref> The [[Western Roman Empire]] collapsed in 476 as [[Romulus Augustus]] was forced to abdicate by [[Odoacer]].<ref>Isaac Asimov. ''Asimov's Chronology of the World.'' Harper Collins, 1989. p. 110.</ref> The Eastern Roman or [[Byzantine Empire]] endured until 1453 with the [[Fall of Constantinople|capture of Constantinople]] by the [[Ottoman Turks]] led by [[Mehmed II]].<ref>Asimov, p. 198.</ref> Therefore, it is difficult to give an exact date when the Roman Empire ceased to exist, however this article will focus on the empire from 27 BC to the permanent division in AD 395. For more information, see [[History of the Roman Empire]].
The [[Dalek Prime]] and [[Davros]] survived the war and encountered one another once more during a decline in Dalek pervasiveness throughout the galaxy. Davros was again defeated and the [[Dalek Prime]] began to rebuild the Empire.   ([[EDA]]: ''[[War of the Daleks]]'')


==Government==
''War of the Daleks however was so poorly received by fans that it's canonicity in the spin-off material is disputed, let alone towards the TV series.''
{{main|Roman Emperor|Roman Senate|Praetorian Guard|Sacramentum|Donativum}}
===Emperor===
The powers of an emperor, (his ''[[imperium]]'') existed, in theory at least, by virtue of his "tribunician powers" (''potestas tribunicia'') and his "proconsular powers" (''imperium proconsulare'').<ref name="Abbott, 342">Abbott, 342</ref> In theory, the tribunician powers (which were similar to those of the [[Plebeian Tribune]]s under the old republic) made the emperor's person and office sacrosanct, and gave the emperor authority over Rome's civil government, including the power to preside over and to control the Senate.<ref name="Abbott, 357">Abbott, 357</ref> The proconsular powers (similar to those of military governors, or [[Proconsul]]s, under the old republic) gave him authority over the Roman army. He was also given powers that, under the republic, had been reserved for the [[Roman Senate|Senate]] and the [[Roman assemblies|assemblies]], including the right to declare war, to ratify treaties, and to negotiate with foreign leaders.<ref name="Abbott, 345">Abbott, 345</ref> The emperor also had the authority to carry out a range of duties that had been performed by the [[Roman Censors|censors]], including the power to control senate membership.<ref name="Abbott, 354">Abbott, 354</ref> In addition, the emperor controlled the [[Roman religion|religious institutions]], since, as emperor, he was always ''[[Pontifex Maximus]]'' and a member of each of the four major priesthoods.<ref name="Abbott, 345">Abbott, 345</ref> While these distinctions were clearly defined during the early empire, eventually they were lost, and the emperor's powers became less constitutional and more monarchical.<ref name="Abbott, 341">Abbott, 341</ref>


Realistically, the main support of an emperor's power and authority was the military. Being paid by the imperial treasury, the legionaries also swore an annual military oath of loyalty towards him, called the [[Sacramentum]]. <ref>{{cite book|title=The Complete Roman Army|first=Adrian |last=Goldsworthy|chapter =The Life of a Roman Soldier|pages=p. 80|isbn=0-500-05124-0|year=2003|publisher=Thames & Hudson|location=London}}</ref> The death of an emperor led to a crucial period of uncertainty and crisis. In theory the senate was entitled to choose the new emperor, but most emperors choose their own successors, usually a close family member. The new emperor had to seek a swift acknowledgement of his new status and authority in order to stabilize the political landscape. No emperor could hope to survive, much less to reign, without the allegiance and loyalty of the [[Praetorian Guard]] and of the legions. To secure their loyalty, several emperors paid the ''[[donativum]]'', a monetary reward.
By the [[Last Great Time War]] with the [[Time Lord]]s of [[Gallifrey]], the Daleks had once more re-unified their empire under the Emperor. ([[DW]]: ''[[Dalek (TV story)|Dalek]]'').


===Senate===
[[Dalek Caan]] rescued Davros from the Time War in an attempt to recreate the Empire. The result was the [[New Dalek Empire]]. ([[DW]]:''[[The Stolen Earth]]'', [[DW]]:''[[Journey's End]]'')
[[Image:Curia Iulia.JPG|left|thumb|200px|The [[Curia Julia]] in the [[Roman Forum]], the seat of the Senate.]]
While the [[Roman assemblies]] continued to meet after the founding of the empire, their powers were all transferred to the [[Roman Senate]], and so senatorial decrees (''senatus consulta'') acquired the full force of law.<ref name="Abbott, 385">Abbott, 385</ref>


In theory, the emperor and the senate were two co-equal branches of government, but the actual authority of the senate was negligible and it was largely a vehicle through which the emperor disguised his autocratic powers under a cloak of republicanism. Still prestigious and respected, the Senate was largely a glorified [[Rubber stamp (politics)|rubber stamp]] institution which had been stripped of most of its powers, and was largely at the emperor's mercy.
{{Stub}}


Many emperors showed a certain degree of respect towards this ancient institution, while others were notorious for ridiculing it. During senate meetings, the emperor sat between the two [[Roman Consul|consuls]], <ref name="Abbott, 383">Abbott, 383</ref> and usually acted as the presiding officer. Higher ranking senators spoke before lower ranking senators, although the emperor could speak at any time.<ref name="Abbott, 383">Abbott, 383</ref> By the third century, the senate had been reduced to a glorified municipal body.
[[Category:Galactic empires]]
 
[[Category:Dalek organizations]]
===Senators and Equestrians===
{{main|Equestrian order|Cursus honorum}}
No emperor could rule the empire without the Senatorial Order and the [[Equestrian order|Equestrian Order]]. Most of the more important posts and offices of the government were reserved for the members of these two aristocratic orders. It was from among their ranks that the provincial governors, legion commanders, and similar officials were chosen.
 
These two classes were hereditary and mostly closed to outsiders. Very successful and favoured individuals could enter, but this was a rare occurrence. The careers of the young aristocrats was influenced by their family connections and the favour of patrons. As important as ability, knowledge, skill, or competence; patronage was considered vital for a successful career and the highest posts and offices required the emperor's favour and trust.
====Senatorial Order====
The son of a senator was expected to follow the ''[[Cursus honorum]]'', a [[career ladder]], and the more prestigious positions were restricted to senators only. A senator also had to be wealthy; one of the basic requirements was the wealth of 12,000 gold [[Aureus|Aurei]] <ref>Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', Life of Augustus [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#41 ''paragraph 41'']</ref>, a figure which would later be raised with the passing of centuries.
====Equestrian Order====
Below the Senatorial Order was the Equestrian Order. The requirements and posts reserved for this class, while perhaps not so prestigious, were still very important. Some of the more vital posts, like the governorship of [[Aegyptus (Roman province)|Aegyptus]], were even forbidden to the members of the Senatorial Order and available only to equestrians.
 
==Military==
[[Image:Roman Empire 125.svg|thumb|right|300px|The Roman empire under [[Hadrian]] (ruled 117-38) showing the location of the Roman legions deployed in 125 AD]]
{{main|Military of ancient Rome|Roman army|Roman Navy}}
===Legions===
During and after the civil war, Octavian reduced the huge number of the [[Roman legion|legions]] (over 60 <ref>''The complete Roman army'' by Adrian Goldsworthy, 2003 chapter ''The Army of the Principate'', p.50; ISBN 0-500-05124-0</ref>) to a much more manageable and affordable size (28 <ref>''The complete Roman army'' by Adrian Goldsworthy, 2003 chapter ''The Army of the Principate'', p.50; ISBN 0-500-05124-0</ref>). Several legions, particularly those with doubtful loyalties, were simply disbanded. Other legions were amalgamated, a fact suggested by the title ''Gemina'' (Twin <ref>''The complete Roman army'' by Adrian Goldsworthy, 2003 chapter ''The Army of the Principate'', p.50; ISBN 0-500-05124-0</ref>). In AD 9 Germanic tribes wiped out three full legions in the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]]. This disastrous event reduced the number of the legions to 25. The total of the legions would later be increased again and for the next 300 years always be a little above or below 30 <ref>''The complete Roman army'' by Adrian Goldsworthy, 2005 chapter ''The Army of the Principate'', p.183; ISBN 0-500-05124-0</ref>. Augustus also created the [[Praetorian Guard]]: nine [[Cohort (military unit)|cohorts]] ostensibly to maintain the public peace which were garrisoned in Italy. Better paid than the legionaries, the Praetorians also served less time; instead of serving the standard 25 years of the legionaries, they retired after 16 years of service <ref>''Rome and her enemies'' published by Osprey, 2005 part 3 ''Early Empire 27BC - AD 235'', chapter 9 ''The Romans'', section ''Remuneration'', p.183; ISBN 978-1-84603-336-0</ref>.
===Auxillia===
While the [[Auxiliaries (Roman military)#Rule of Augustus (30 BC&ndash;14 AD)By 23&nbsp;AD|Auxillia]] (Latin: ''auxilia'' = supports) are not as famous as the legionaries, they were of major importance. Unlike the legionaries, the auxilia were recruited from among the non-citizens. Organized in smaller units of roughly cohort strength, they were paid less than the legionaries, and after 25 years of service were rewarded with [[Roman citizenship]], also extended to their sons. According to [[Tacitus]] <ref>[[Tacitus]] ''[[Annales]]'' IV.5</ref> there were roughly as many auxiliaries as there were legionaries. Since at this time there were 25 legions of around 5,000 men each, the auxilia thus amounted to around 125,000 men, implying approximately 250 auxiliary regiments <ref>Goldsworthy (2003) 51</ref>.
===Navy===
The [[Roman Navy]] (Latin: ''Classis'', lit. "fleet") not only aided in the supply and transport of the legions, but also helped in the protection of the frontiers in the rivers Rhine and Danube. Another of its duties was the protection of the very important maritime trade routes against the threat of pirates. Therefore it patrolled the whole of the [[Mediterranean Sea]], parts of the [[Atlantic|North Atlantic]] (coasts of Hispania, Gaul, and Britannia), and had also a naval presence in the [[Black Sea]]. Nevertheless the army was considered the senior and more prestigious branch <ref>''The complete Roman army'' by Adrian Goldsworthy 2003, chapter ''After Service'', p.114; ISBN 0-500-05124-0</ref>.
==Provinces==
{{main|Roman province|Senatorial province|Imperial province|Grain supply to the city of Rome}}
In the old days of the Republic the governorships of the provinces were traditionally <ref name="paragraph 47">Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', Life of Augusts [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#47 ''paragraph 47'']</ref> awarded to members of the [[Senatorial Order]]. Augustus' reforms changed this policy.
===Imperial provinces===
Augustus created <ref>Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', Life of Augustus [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Augustus*.html#47 ''paragraph 47'']</ref> the [[Imperial province]]s. Most, but not all, of the Imperial provinces were relatively recent conquests and located at the borders. Thereby the overwhelming majority of legions, which were stationed at the frontiers, were under direct Imperial control. Very important was the Imperial province of [[Aegyptus (Roman province)|Aegyptus]] (modern Egypt), the major [[breadbasket]] of the empire. Its [[Grain supply to the city of Rome|grain supply]] was vital to feed the masses in Rome. It was considered the personal fiefdom of the emperor, and Senators were forbidden to even visit this province. The governor of Aegyptus and the commanders of any legion stationed there were not from the Senatorial Order, but were chosen by the emperor from among the members of the lower [[Equestrian order|Equestrian Order]].
===Senatorial provinces===
The old traditional policy continued largely unchanged in the [[Senatorial province]]s. Due to their location, away from the borders, and to the fact that they were under longer Roman sovereignty and control, these provinces were largely peaceful and stable. Only a single legion was based in a Senatorial province: [[Legio III Augusta]], stationed in the Senatorial province of [[Africa Province|Africa]] (modern northern Algeria).
 
The status of a province was subject to change; it could change from Senatorial towards Imperial, or vice-versa. This happened several times <ref name="paragraph 47"/> during Augustus' reign. Another trend was to create new provinces, mostly by dividing older ones, or by expanding the empire.
 
==Religion==
{{main|Religion in ancient Rome|Imperial cult (ancient Rome)|Persecution of religion in ancient Rome}}
As the empire expanded, and came to include people from a variety of cultures, the worship of an ever increasing number of [[deity|deities]] was tolerated and accepted. The imperial government, and the Romans in general, tended to be very tolerant towards most religions and cults, as long as they observed and included sacrifices to the divine emperors as a declaration of loyalty to the empire. However a select few religions were not tolerated, and on occasion even actively persecuted.
 
===Imperial cult===
In an effort to enhance loyalty, the inhabitants of the empire were called to participate in the [[Imperial cult (Ancient Rome)|Imperial cult]] and revere the emperors and certain members of the imperial family as gods. The importance of the Imperial cult slowly grew, reaching its peak during the [[Crisis of the Third Century]]. Especially in the eastern half of the empire imperial cults grew very popular, and the cult complex became one of the focal points of life in the [[polis|Roman cities]]. As such it was one of the major agents of [[romanization (cultural)|romanization]]. The central elements of the cult complex were next to a temple; a [[Roman theatre (structure)|theatre]] or [[amphitheatre]] for gladiator displays and other games and a [[Thermae|public bath complex]]. Sometimes the imperial cult was added to the cults of an existing temple or celebrated in a special hall in the bath complex.
 
The seriousness of this belief is unclear. Some Romans ridiculed the notion that a Roman emperor was to be considered a living god, or would even make fun of the deification of an emperor after his death. [[Seneca the Younger]] parodied the notion of apotheosis in his only known satire ''[[The Pumpkinification of Claudius]]'', in which the clumsy and ill-spoken [[Claudius]] is not transformed into a god, but into a [[pumpkin]]. In fact, bitter sarcasm was already effected at Claudius' funeral in 54 <ref>Tacitus, ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Ann.]]'' XII, 69.</ref>.
 
===Absorption of foreign cults===
Several foreign gods and cults grew popular, and the worship of [[Cybele]], [[Isis]], [[Mithras]], and [[Sol Invictus]] became quite important. Several of these were popular [[Mystery cult]]s.
 
===Persecuted religions===
====Druids====
[[Druid]]s were seen as essentially non-Roman: a prescript of [[Augustus]] forbade Roman citizens to practice "druidical" rites. [[Pliny]] reports <ref>[[Pliny's Natural History]] xxx.4.</ref> that under [[Tiberius]] the druids were suppressed—along with diviners and physicians—by a decree of the Senate, and [[Claudius]] forbade their rites completely in AD 54 <ref name="paragraph 25">Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', Life of Claudius [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html#25 ''paragraph 25'']</ref>.
 
====Judaism====
While [[Judaism]] was largely tolerated, it was on occasion subject to (mostly) local persecution.
 
Tiberius <ref>Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', Life of Tiberius [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Tiberius*.html#36 ''paragraph 36'']</ref> forbade Judaism in Rome, and Claudius expelled Jews from the city. However the passage of Suetonius is ambiguous: ''"Because the Jews at Rome caused continuous disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus he [Claudius] expelled them from the city"'' <ref name="paragraph 25"/>. ''Chrestus'' has been identified as another form of ''Christus''; the disturbances may have been related to the arrival of the first Christians, and that the Roman authorities, failing to distinguish between the Jews and the early Christians, simply decided to expel them all.
 
====Christianity====
[[Christianity]] was born out of Judaism following the death of [[Jesus of Nazareth]] and emerged in [[Iudaea Province|Judea]] in 29 AD. The religion spread, establishing major bases in [[Antioch]], particularly by [[St. Peter]], then [[Alexandria]]. [[Saul of Tarsus]], later known as [[St. Paul]], was a persecutor of early Christians. He began preaching tours after his conversion in Damascus, as early as 37 A.D.<ref>Prat, F. (1911). St. Paul. In <u>The Catholic Encyclopedia</u>. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved February 11, 2009 from New Advent: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11567b.htm</ref> Paul, known as "Apostle to the Gentiles", publicly addressed and acknowledged non-Jewish persons as members of the Christian faith. His letters highlight differences between Judaism and the newly-founded Christianity. Over time, Christianity would spread throughout the empire and it was initially largely left in peace.{{Fact|date=February 2009}}
 
[[Suetonius]] mentions passingly that: ''"[during Nero's reign] Punishments were also inflicted on the Christians, a sect professing a new and mischievous religious belief"'' <ref>Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', Life of Nero [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Nero*.html#16 ''paragraph 16'']</ref> but he doesn't explain for what they were punished.
[[Tacitus]] reports that after the [[Great Fire of Rome]] in AD 64 some in the population held Nero responsible <ref name="annals-xv-44">Tacitus, ''Annals'' [[wikisource:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|XV.44]]</ref> and that to diffuse blame, he targeted and blamed the Christians <ref name="annals-xv-44" />.
 
Persecution of Christians would be a recurring theme in the Empire for the next two centuries. [[Eusebius]] and [[Lactantius]] document the last great persecution of the Christians under [[Diocletian]] at the beginning of the 4th century at the urging of [[Galerius]]. This was the most vicious persecution of Christians in the Empire's history.
 
As the 4th century progressed, Christianity had become so widespread that it became officially tolerated, then promoted ([[Constantine I]]), and in 380 established as the Empire's official religion ([[Theodosius I]]). By the 5th century Christianity had become the Empire's predominant religion rapidly changing the Empire's identity even as the Western provinces collapsed.<ref>Ekelund, Robert Burton; Hébert, Robert F.: ''[http://books.google.com/books?id=FP08EXnwP3YC The Marketplace of Christianity]'', pg. 60, The MIT Press, Nov. 2006, ISBN 978-0-262-05082-1</ref> This would lead to the persecution of the traditional polytheistic religions that had previously characterized most of the Empire.
 
==Languages==
{{main|Latin|Classical Latin|Vulgar Latin|Greek language|Koine Greek|Phoenician language|Aramaic language|Syriac language|Coptic language|Celtic languages}}
The language of [[Rome]] before its expansion was [[Latin]], and this became the Empire's official language. By the time of the imperial period Latin began evolving into [[diglossia|into two languages]]: the 'high' written [[Classical Latin]] and the 'low' spoken [[Vulgar Latin]]. While Classical Latin remained relatively stable, even through the [[Middle Ages]], Vulgar Latin as with any spoken language was fluid and evolving. Vulgar Latin became the [[lingua franca]] in the western provinces later evolving into the modern [[Romance languages]]: [[Italian language|Italian]], [[French language|French]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], etc. Greek and Classical Latin were considered the languages of literature, scholarship, and education.
 
Although Latin remained the official and most widely spoken language through to the [[fall of Rome]] and for some centuries after in the [[Byzantine Empire|East]], the [[Greek language]] was the [[lingua franca]] in the Eastern Provinces.<ref>Fergus Millar, ''A Greek Roman Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408-450)''. Sather Classical Lectures, Vol. 64. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006. Pp. 279. ISBN 0-520-24703-5; Warren Treadgold "A Concise History of Byzantium" (New York: St Martin's Press, 2001); Warren Treadgold "A History of the Byzantine State and Society" (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997)</ref> With the exception of Carthage, the Romans generally did not attempt to supplant local cultures and languages. It is to their credit that they generally left established customs in place and only gradually supplemented with the typical Roman-style improvements.<ref name="Freeman1">Freeman (1999), pp.389-433</ref> Greek was already widely spoken in many cities in the east, and as such, the Romans were quite content to retain it as an administrative language there rather than impede bureaucratic efficiency. Hence, two official secretaries served in the Roman Imperial court, one charged with correspondence in Latin and the other with correspondence in Greek for the East.<ref>Lee I. Levine ''Jerusalem'' [http://books.google.com/books?id=gqL8C_JBEm0C&pg=PA270&dq=rome+catacombs+greek+latin+aramaic+inscription+%25&sig=ACfU3U1d84XhiN27AIqCOGI6jL2pSwhYXA#PPA154,M1 ''see page 154'']</ref> Thus in the Eastern Province, as with all provinces, original languages were retained.<ref>http://www.unrv.com/provinces/judaea.php</ref><ref><i>Social and Economic Conditions of the Roman Empire in the Fourth
Century</i> by Paul Vinogradoff, 1911, Cambridge Medieval History, Volume One, pp. 542-567</ref> Moreover, the process of hellenisation continued more extensively, well beyond city boundaries, during the Roman period, for the Romans perpetuated [[Hellenistic civilization|"Hellenistic"]] culture,<ref>Lee I. Levine ''Jerusalem'' [http://books.google.com/books?id=gqL8C_JBEm0C&pg=PA270&dq=rome+catacombs+greek+latin+aramaic+inscription+%25&sig=ACfU3U1d84XhiN27AIqCOGI6jL2pSwhYXA#PPA154,M1 ''p. 154'']</ref><ref> Andrew Sherratt (Ed.) "The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Archeology" (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), pp. 242-243. ISBN 0-521-22989-8</ref>{{#tag:ref|This is somewhat simplistic as the Romans did not simply adopt/copy Greek or other cultures. See, for example, 'Freeman, C. "The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World" (New York: Penguin, 1999)' for a more detailed description of how the Romans interacted with Greek (and other) cultures.|group=nb}} but with all the trappings of [[Greco-Roman|Roman]] improvements.<ref>http://www.religiousstudies.uncc.edu/jdtabor/overview-roman-world.html; http://www.jstor.org/pss/3155063; http://www.scriptureinhistory.org.au/Articles/Syria%20article.htm</ref><ref> Andrew Sherratt (Ed.) "The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Archeology" (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980), pp. 240-244. ISBN 0-521-22989-8</ref> This further spreading of "Hellenistic" culture (and therefore language) was largely due to the extensive infrastructure (in the form of entertainment, health, and education amenities, and extensive transportation networks, etc.) put in place by the Romans and their tolerance, and inclusion, of other cultures, a characteristic which set them apart from the xenophobic nature of the Greeks preceding them.<ref name="Freeman1"/>
 
During the 7th century AD Greek became the most widely spoken language in the Empire due to the contraction of the imperial borders to the eastern regions where the [[Greek language]] was most dominant; the administrative language was actually changed to Greek during the reign of [[Heraclius]] (610-641 AD).<ref>Warren Treadgold "A Concise History of Byzantium" (New York: St Martin's Press, 2001); Warren Treadgold "A History of the Byzantine State and Society" (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997)</ref> Since the Roman annexation of Greece in 146 BC the Greek language gradually obtained a unique place in the Roman world, owing initially to the large number of Greek slaves in Roman households.<ref name="Freeman1"/> In Rome itself Greek became the second language of the educated elite.<ref>McDonnell/MacDonnell, ''Roman Manliness: Virtus and the Roman Republic''{{Verify credibility|date=January 2008}}</ref><ref name="Freeman1"/> It became the common language in early the [[Christian Church|Church]] (as it's major centers in the early Christian period were in the East), and the language of scholarship and the arts. However, due to the presence of other widely spoken languages in the densely populated east, such as [[Coptic language|Coptic]], [[Syriac language|Syriac]], [[Armenian language|Armenian]], [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] and [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] (which was also extensively spoken in North Africa), Greek never took as strong a hold, beyond Asia Minor, (some urban enclaves notwithstanding) as Latin eventually did in the west. This is, partly, evident in the extent to which the derivative languages are spoken today. Like Latin, the language gained a [[Diglossia|dual nature]] with the literary language, an [[Attic Greek]] variant, existing alongside spoken language, [[Koine Greek]], which evolved into [[Medieval Greek|Medieval]] or Byzantine Greek (Romaic).<ref>''Greek Language'', [http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9366082/Greek ''Encyclopedia Britannica'']</ref>
 
By the 4th century AD Greek no longer held such dominance over Latin in the Church, Arts and Sciences as it had previously, resulting to a great extent from the growth of the western provinces (reflected, for example, in the publication in the early 5th century AD of the [[Vulgate|Vulgate Bible]], the first officially accepted Latin [[Bible]]; before this only Greek translations were accepted). As the Western Empire [[Decline of the Roman Empire|declined]], the number of people who spoke both Greek and Latin declined as well, contributing greatly to the future [[Eastern Europe|East]]–[[Western Europe|West]] / [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox]]–[[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic]] cultural divide in [[Europe]]. Important as both languages were, today the [[Romance language|descendants of Latin]] are widely spoken in many parts of the world, while the Greek dialects are limited mostly to [[Greece]], [[Cyprus]], and small enclaves in [[Turkey]] and southern [[Italy]]. To some degree this can be attributed to the fact that the western provinces fell mainly to "Latinised" [[Germanic Christianity|Christian]] tribes whereas the eastern provinces fell to [[Islam|Muslim]] Arabs and Turks for whom Greek held less cultural significance.
<!--The major languages of the Roman Empire were [[Latin]] and [[Greek language|Greek]]. Greek was the long established [[lingua franca]] in the Mediterranean and very important in the eastern provinces, while the influence of Latin was stronger in the western provinces and there it slowly gained in importance. The imperial bureaucracy worked in both languages, and two official secretaries <ref>Lee I. Levine ''Jerusalem'' [http://books.google.com/books?id=gqL8C_JBEm0C&pg=PA270&dq=rome+catacombs+greek+latin+aramaic+inscription+%25&sig=ACfU3U1d84XhiN27AIqCOGI6jL2pSwhYXA#PPA154,M1 ''see page 154'']</ref> dealt with the correspondence, in Greek for the eastern provinces, and in Latin for the western provinces.
 
By the time of the imperial period Latin had evolved [[diglossia|into two languages]]: the 'high' written [[Classical Latin]] and the 'low' spoken [[Vulgar Latin]]. While Classical Latin remained relatively stable, Vulgar Latin was, as with any spoken language, continually fluid and slowly evolving. Greek had also evolved into [[Attic Greek|Attic]] and [[Koine Greek]]. Greek and Classical Latin were considered the languages of literature, scholarship, and education.  One of the passages of ''[[The Twelve Caesars]]'' even tells us that, as a barbarian addressed emperor [[Claudius]] in both Greek and in Latin, the reply of the emperor began with: ''"Since you come armed with both our languages..."'' <ref>Suetonius, ''The Twelve Caesars'', Life of Claudius [http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Suetonius/12Caesars/Claudius*.html#42 ''paragraph 42'']</ref>. Claudius is also the last known person to study and to write [[Etruscan language|Etruscan]] which seems to have died out in the 1st century AD.
 
Nearly all educated persons in the East could speak Greek, just as all educated persons in the West spoke Latin and Greek, but a great proportion of ordinary people spoke neither. In the enormous and multi-ethnic empire several other languages were spoken, some even gaining local official status during some periods. [[Aramaic language#Late Old Western Aramaic|Aramaic]] and [[Syriac language|Syriac]] were spoken in certain eastern provinces and, in addition to Greek, became accepted literary languages used by the local elite. Also important were [[Coptic language|Coptic]] in Egypt, and [[Armenian language|Armenian]] in Armenia, while [[Punic language|Punic]] seems to have entered a period of slow decline. Hard knowledge about the various [[Celtic languages|Celtic]] dialects and languages is sadly lacking.-->
 
==Culture==
[[Image:Toga Illustration.png|left|thumb|Roman clad in a [[toga]]]]
{{main|Culture of ancient Rome|Social class in ancient Rome}}
Life in the Roman Empire revolved around the [[city]] of [[Rome]], and its famed [[Seven hills of Rome|seven hills]]. The city also had several [[Roman theatre (structure)|theatres]].<ref> Jones, Mark Wilson ''Principles of Roman Architecture.'' New Haven: Yale University Press, 2000. </ref> [[gymnasium (ancient Greece)|gymnasiums]], and many [[tavern]]s, [[Thermae|baths]] and [[brothel]]s. Throughout the territory under Rome's control, [[residential]] [[architecture]] ranged from very modest [[house]]s to [[Roman villa|country villas]], and in the [[capital city]] of Rome, to the [[House|residences]] on the elegant [[Palatine Hill]], from which the word "''palace''" is derived. The vast majority of the population lived in the city centre, packed into apartment blocks.
 
Most Roman towns and cities had a [[Roman Forum|forum]] and temples, as did the city of Rome itself. [[Aqueduct (Roman)|Aqueducts]] were built to bring [[water]] to urban centres<ref name="Kevin Greene, “Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 53, No. 1. (Feb., 2000), pp. 29-59 (39)">Kevin Greene, “Technological Innovation and Economic Progress in the Ancient World: M.I. Finley Re-Considered”, The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 53, No. 1. (Feb., 2000), pp. 29-59 (39)</ref> and [[Ancient Rome and wine|wine]] and [[Cooking oil|oil]] were imported from abroad. Landlords generally resided in cities and their estates were left in the care of farm managers. To stimulate a higher labour productivity, many landlords freed a large numbers of slaves. By the time of Augustus, cultured Greek household slaves taught the Roman young (sometimes even the girls). Greek sculptures adorned Hellenistic landscape gardening on the Palatine or in the [[Roman villa|villas]].
 
Many aspects of Roman culture were taken from the [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]].<ref name="Scott, 404">Scott, 404</ref> In [[architecture]] and [[sculpture]], the difference between Greek models and Roman paintings are apparent. The chief Roman contributions to architecture were the [[arch]] and the [[dome]].
 
The centre of the early social structure was the family,<ref name="Abbott, 1">Abbott, 1</ref> which was not only marked by [[bloodline|blood relations]] but also by the legally constructed relation of patria potestas.<ref name="Abbott, 2">Abbott, 2</ref> The [[Pater familias]] was the absolute head of the family; he was the master over his wife, his children, the wives of his sons, the nephews, the slaves and the freedmen, disposing of them and of their goods at will, even putting them to death.<ref name="Abbott, 6">Abbott, 6</ref> Originally, only patrician aristocracy enjoyed the privilege of forming familial clans, or ''gens'', as legal entities; later, in the wake of political struggles and warfare, clients were also enlisted. Thus, such plebian ''gentes'' were the first formed, imitating their patrician counterparts.<ref>''Social History of Rome'' By Géza Alföldy, David Braund, 1985</ref>
 
[[Slavery]] and slaves were part of the social order; there were [[slave trade|slave markets]] where they could be bought and sold. Many slaves were freed by the masters for services rendered; some slaves could save money to buy their freedom. Generally [[mutilation]] and [[murder]] of slaves was prohibited by legislation. It is estimated that over 25% of the Roman population was enslaved.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/slavery_01.shtml|publisher=BBC|title=Resisting Slavery in Ancient Rome|accessdate=2008-06-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dl.ket.org/latinlit/mores/slaves/|title=Slavery in Ancient Rome|accessdate=2008-06-20|publisher=Kentucky Educational Television}}</ref>
 
The city of Rome had a place called the [[Campus Martius]] ("Field of Mars"), which was a sort of drill ground for Roman soldiers. Later, the Campus became Rome’s track and field playground. In the campus, the youth assembled to play and exercise, which included [[jumping]], [[wrestling]], [[boxing]] and [[racing]]. [[equestrianism|Riding]], [[throwing]], and [[swimming]] were also preferred physical activities. In the countryside, [[pastime]] also included [[fishing]] and [[hunting]]. [[Board game]]s played in Rome included [[Dice]] (Tesserae or [[Venus Throw|Tali]]), Roman Chess ([[Ludus latrunculorum|Latrunculi]]), Roman [[Draughts|Checkers]] (Calculi), [[Tic-tac-toe]] (Terni Lapilli), and [[Ludus duodecim scriptorum]] and Tabula, predecessors of backgammon.<ref name="austin-roman1">Austin, Roland G. "Roman Board Games. I", ''Greece & Rome'' 4:10, October 1934. pp. 24-34.</ref> There were several other activities to keep people engaged like chariot races, musical and theatrical performances,
 
===Clothing, dining, and the arts===
{{main|Roman cuisine|Latin literature|Roman art|Roman music|Roman architecture}}
The cloth and the dress distinguished one class of people from the other class. The tunic worn by [[plebeians]] (common people) like shepherds and slaves was made from coarse and dark material, whereas the [[tunic]] worn by [[patricians]] was of linen or white wool.<ref>Pliny the Elder's [[Natural History (Pliny)|Natural History]], book 12 pp. 38</ref> A magistrate would wear the tunic augusticlavi; senators wore a tunic with broad stripes, called tunica laticlavi. Military tunics were shorter than the ones worn by civilians. Boys, up until the festival of Liberalia, wore the ''toga praetexta'', which was a toga with a crimson or purple border. The ''toga virilis'', (or ''toga pura'') was worn by men over the age of 16 to signify their citizenship in Rome. The ''toga picta'' was worn by triumphant generals and had embroidery of their skill on the battlefield. The ''toga pulla'' was worn when in mourning. Even [[footwear]] indicated a person’s social status. Patricians wore red and orange [[sandal (footwear)|sandals]], senators had brown footwear, consuls had white shoes, and soldiers wore heavy boots. Men typically wore a [[toga]], and women a [[stola]]. The woman's ''stola'' looked different than a toga, and was usually brightly coloured. The Romans also invented socks for those soldiers required to fight on the northern frontiers, sometimes worn in sandals.<ref>{{citeweb|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/london/3181443.stm|title=Romans' crimes of fashion revealed|accessdate=2008-06-19|publisher=[[BBC]]}}</ref>
 
Romans had simple food habits. Staple food was simple, generally consumed at around 11 o’clock, and consisted of [[bread]], [[salad]], [[cheese]], [[fruit]]s, [[nut (fruit)|nuts]], and cold meat left over from the dinner the night before. The Roman poet, [[Horace]] mentions another Roman favourite, the [[olive]], in reference to his own diet, which he describes as very simple: "As for me, olives, [[endive]]s, and smooth [[Althaea (genus)|mallows]] provide sustenance."<ref>"Me pascunt olivae, me cichorea levesque malvae." Horace, ''Odes 1.31.15'', ca 30 BC</ref> The family ate together, sitting on [[stool]]s around a [[table (furniture)|table]]. Fingers were used to eat solid foods and [[spoon]]s were used for soups. Wine was considered a staple drink,<ref name="Phillips pg 46-56">Phillips pg 46-56</ref> consumed at all meals and occasions by all classes and was quite cheap. Many types of drinks involving grapes and honey were consumed as well. Drinking on an empty stomach was regarded as boorish and a sure sign for [[alcoholism]], whose debilitating physical and psychological effects were known to the Romans. An accurate accusation of being an alcoholic was an effective way to discredit political rivals.
 
Roman literature was from its very inception influenced heavily by Greek authors. Some of the earliest works we possess are of historical epics telling the early military history of Rome. As the empire expanded, authors began to produce poetry, comedy, history, and tragedy. [[Virgil]] represents the pinnacle of Roman epic poetry. His ''[[Aeneid]]'' tells the story of flight of Aeneas from [[Troy]] and his settlement of the city that would become Rome. [[Lucretius]], in his ''[[On the Nature of Things]]'', attempted to explicate [[science]] in an epic poem. The genre of satire was common in Rome, and satires were written by, among others, [[Satires of Juvenal|Juvenal]]<ref> [[Lucilius]] – the acknowledged originator of Roman Satire in the form practiced by Juvenal - experimented with other meters before settling on dactylic hexameter.</ref> and [[Persius]]. Many Roman homes were decorated with landscapes by Greek artists. Portrait sculpture<ref>{{cite journal |last=Toynbee |first=J. M. C. |year=1971 |month=December |title=Roman Art |journal=The Classical Review |volume=21 |issue=3 |pages=439–442 |url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0009-840X%28197112%292%3A21%3A3%3C439%3ARA%3E2.0.CO%3B2-O |accessdate= 2007-12-11 }}</ref> during the period utilized youthful and classical proportions, evolving later into a mixture of realism and idealism. Advancements were also made in relief sculptures, often depicting Roman victories.
[[Image:pompmusic.jpg|thumb|Detail of a mosaic found in Pompeii. The figure on the left is playing the double ''aulos'', double-reed pipes; the figure in the middle, ''cymbalum'', small, bronze cymbals; and on the right, the ''tympanum'', a tambourine-like drum.]]
 
Music was a major part of everyday life. The word itself derives from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''μουσική'' (''mousike''), "(art) of the [[Muses]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%2368891|title=Mousike, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', at Perseus}}</ref> Many private and public events were accompanied by music, ranging from nightly dining to military parades and manoeuvres. In a discussion of any ancient music, however, non-specialists and even many musicians have to be reminded that much of what makes our modern music familiar to us is the result of developments only within the last 1,000 years; thus, our ideas of melody, scales, harmony, and even the instruments we use would not be familiar to Romans who made and listened to music many centuries earlier.
 
Over time, Roman architecture was modified as their urban requirements changed, and the [[civil engineering]] and [[building]] [[construction]] [[technology]] became developed and refined. The Roman [[concrete]] has remained a riddle, and even after more than 2,000 years some Roman structures still stand magnificently.<ref>W. L. MacDonald, The Architecture of the Roman Empire, rev. ed. Yale University Press, New Haven, 1982, fig. 131B; Lechtman and Hobbs "Roman Concrete and the Roman Architectural Revolution"</ref> The architectural style of the capital city was emulated by other urban centres under Roman control and influence.
 
===Education===
{{main|Roman school}}
Following various military conquests in the [[Greek East]], Romans adapted a number of Greek educational precepts to their own fledgling system.<ref name="Legacy">The Legacy of Roman Education (in the Forum), Nanette R. Pacal, The Classical Journal, Vol. 79, No. 4. (Apr. – May, 1984)</ref> Home was often the learning centre, where children were taught [[Roman law]], [[convention (norm)|customs]], and physical training to prepare the boys to grow as Roman citizens and for eventual [[recruitment]] into the [[army]]. Conforming to discipline was a point of great emphasis. Girls generally received instruction<ref name = "Ox"/> from their mothers in the art of [[Spinning (textiles)|spinning]], [[weaving]] ,and [[sewing]].
 
Education began at the age of around six, and in the next six to seven years, boys and girls were expected to learn the basics of [[Reading (activity)|reading]], [[writing]] and [[counting]]. By the age of twelve, they would be learning [[Latin]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[grammar]] and [[literature]], followed by training for [[public speaking]]. [[Oratory]] was an art to be practised and learnt, and good orators commanded respect. To become an effective orator was one of the objectives of [[education]] and [[learning]]. In some cases, services of gifted slaves were utilized for imparting education.<ref name="Ox">Oxford Classical Dictionary, Edited by Simon Hornblower and Antony Spawforth, Third Edition. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 1996</ref>
 
==Economy==
{{main|Roman currency|Roman provincial coins}}
The imperial government was, as all governments, interested in the issue and control of the currency in circulation. To mint coins was a political act: the image of the ruling emperor appeared on most issues, and coins were a means of showing his image throughout the empire. Also featured were predecessors, empresses, other family members, and [[Heir apparent|heirs apparent]]. By issuing coins with the image of an heir his legitimacy and future succession was proclaimed and reinforced. Political messages and imperial propaganda such as proclamations of victory and acknowledgements of loyalty also appeared in certain issues.
 
Legally only the emperor and the Senate had the authority to mint coins inside the empire <ref>[http://www.usask.ca/antiquities/coins/roman_coins.html]</ref>. However the authority of the Senate was mainly in name only. In general, the imperial government issued gold and silver coins while the Senate issued bronze coins marked by the legend '''''"SC"''''', short for ''Senatus Consulto'' "by decree of the Senate". However, bronze coinage could be struck without this legend. Some Greek cities were allowed to mint <ref>[http://dougsmith.ancients.info/begin4.html]</ref> bronze and certain silver coins, which today are known as ''Greek Imperials'' (also ''Roman Colonials'' or ''Roman Provincials''). The imperial mints were under the control of a chief financial minister, and the provincial mints were under the control of the imperial provincial procurators. The Senatorial mints were governed by officials of the Senatorial treasury.
 
==History==
{{main|History of the Roman Empire|Roman Emperor|List of Roman Emperors}}
===Augustus (27 BC&ndash;AD 14)===
{{See|Praetorian Guard|Roman triumph|Battle of the Teutoburg Forest|Arminius|Publius Quinctilius Varus}}
[[Image:Castro, Battle of Actium.jpg|left|thumb|181px|''The Battle of Actium'', by Lorenzo A. Castro, 1672.]]
The [[Battle of Actium]] resulted in the defeat and subsequent suicides of [[Mark Antony]] and [[Cleopatra VII of Egypt|Cleopatra]]. Octavian, now sole ruler of Rome, began a full-scale reformation of military, fiscal and political matters. The powers that he secured for himself were identical in form, if not in name, to those that his predecessor [[Julius Caesar]] had secured years earlier as '''[[Roman Dictator]]'''. In 36 BC, he was given the power of a '''[[Plebeian Tribune]]''', which gave him veto power over the senate, the ability to control the principle legislative assembly (the '''[[Plebeian Council]]'''), and made his person and office sacrosanct. Up until 32 BC, his status as a '''[[Triumvir]]''' gave him the powers of an autocrat, but when he deposed Mark Antony that year, he resigned from the [[Second Triumvirate|Triumvirate]], and was then given powers identical to those that he had given up. In 29 BC, Octavian was given the authority of a [[Roman Censor]], and thus the power to appoint new senators.<ref name="Abbott, 267">Abbott, 267</ref>
 
The senate granted Octavian a unique grade of [[Proconsul]]ar ''imperium'', which gave him authority over all Proconsuls (military governors).<ref name="Abbott, 269">Abbott, 269</ref> The unruly provinces at the borders, where the vast majority of the legions were stationed, were under the control of Augustus. These provinces were classified as [[imperial provinces]]. The peaceful [[senatorial provinces]] were under the control of the Senate. The Roman legions, which had reached an unprecedented number (around 50) because of the civil wars, were reduced to 28. Augustus also created nine special [[Cohort (military unit)|cohorts]], ostensibly to maintain the peace in Italy, keeping at least three of them stationed at Rome. These cohorts became known as the [[Praetorian Guard]]. In 27 BC, Octavian transferred control of the state back to the [[spqr|Senate and the People of Rome]].<ref name="Abbott, 267">Abbott, 267</ref> The Senate refused the offer, which, in effect, functioned as a popular ratification of his position within the state. Octavian was also granted the title of "Augustus" by the senate,<ref name="Abbott, 268">Abbott, 268</ref> and took the title of ''[[Princeps]]'', or "first citizen".<ref name="Abbott, 269">Abbott, 269</ref> 
 
As the adopted heir of Caesar, Augustus preferred to be called by this name. ''Caesar'' was a component of his family name. Julio-Claudian rule lasted for almost a century (from Julius Caesar in the mid-1st century BC to the emperor [[Nero]] in the mid-1st century AD). By the time of the Flavian Dynasty, and the reign of [[Vespasian]], and that of his two sons, [[Titus]] and [[Domitian]], the term ''Caesar'' had evolved, almost ''de facto'', from a family name into a formal title.
 
Augustus' final goal was to figure out a method to ensure an orderly succession. In 6 BC Augustus granted tribunician powers to his stepson [[Tiberius]],<ref name="Abbott, 272">Abbott, 272</ref> and before long Augustus realized that he had no choice but to recognize Tiberius as his heir. In 13 AD, the point was settled beyond question. A law was passed which linked Augustus' powers over the provinces to those of Tiberius,<ref name="Abbott, 273">Abbott, 273</ref> so that now Tiberius' legal powers were equivalent to, and independent from, those of Augustus.<ref name="Abbott, 273">Abbott, 273</ref> Within a year, Augustus was dead.
 
===Tiberius to Alexander Severus (14&ndash;235)===
Augustus was succeeded by his stepson [[Tiberius]], the son of his wife [[Livia]] from her first marriage. Augustus was a scion of the ''[[gens]]'' [[Julius|Julia]] (the Julian family), one of the most ancient [[patrician]] clans of [[ancient Rome|Rome]], while Tiberius was a scion of the ''gens'' [[Claudius (gens)|Claudia]], only slightly less ancient than the Julians. Their three immediate successors were all descended both from the ''gens'' Claudia, through Tiberius's brother [[Nero Claudius Drusus]], and from ''gens'' Julia, either through [[Julia the Elder]], Augustus's daughter from his first marriage ([[Caligula]] and [[Nero]]), or through Augustus's sister [[Octavia Minor]] ([[Claudius]]). Historians thus refer to their dynasty as "[[Julio-Claudian Dynasty]]".
[[Image:Roman Colosseum With Moon.jpg|thumb|Vespasian commissioned the [[Colosseum]] in Rome.]]
 
The early years of [[Tiberius]]'s reign were peaceful and relatively benign. However, Tiberius's reign soon became characterised by paranoia and slander. He began a series of treason trials and executions, which continued until his death in 37. The logical successor to the hated Tiberius was his grandnephew, Gaius (better known as "Caligula" or "little boots"). [[Caligula]] started out well, but quickly became insane. In 41 Caligula was assassinated, and for two days following his assassination, the senate debated the merits of restoring the republic.<ref name="Abbott, 293">Abbott, 293</ref> Due to the demands of the army, however, [[Claudius]] was ultimately declared emperor. Claudius was neither paranoid like his uncle Tiberius, nor insane like his nephew [[Caligula]], and was therefore able to administer the empire with reasonable ability. In his own family life he was less successful, as he married his niece, who may very well have poisoned him in 54. [[Nero]], who succeeded Claudius, focused much of his attention on diplomacy, trade, and increasing the cultural capital of the empire. Nero, though, is remembered as a tyrant, and committed suicide in 68.
 
The forced suicide of [[Nero]] was followed by a brief period of civil war, known as the "[[Year of the Four Emperors]]". Augustus had established a standing army, where individual soldiers served under the same military governors over an extended period of time. The consequence was that the soldiers in the provinces developed a degree of loyalty to their commanders, which they did not have for the emperor. Thus the empire was, in a sense, a union of inchoate principalities, which could have disintegrated at any time.<ref name="Abbott, 296">Abbott, 296</ref> Between June 68 and December 69, [[Ancient Rome|Rome]] witnessed the successive rise and fall of [[Galba]], [[Otho]] and [[Vitellius]] until the final accession of [[Vespasian]], first ruler of the [[Flavian dynasty]]. These events showed that any successful general could legitimately claim a right to the throne.<ref name="Abbott, 298">Abbott, 298</ref> 
 
[[Vespasian]], though a successful emperor, continued the weakening of the Senate which had been going on since the reign of Tiberius. Through this sound fiscal policy, he was able to build up a surplus in the treasury, and began construction on the [[Colosseum]]. [[Titus]], Vespasian's successor, quickly proved his merit, although his short reign was marked by disaster, including the eruption of Mount [[Vesuvius]] in [[Pompeii]]. He held the opening ceremonies in the still unfinished Colesseum, but died in 81. He was succeeded by his brother, [[Domitian]], who had exceedingly poor relations with the senate. Domitian, ultimately, was a tyrant with the character which always makes tyranny repulsive,<ref name="Abbott, 312">Abbott, 312</ref> and this derived in part from the fact that he had no son, and thus was constantly in danger of being overthrown.<ref name="Abbott, 312">Abbott, 312</ref> In September of 96, he was murdered.
[[Image:RomanEmpire 117.svg|thumb|left|350px|Roman Empire in 117 AD]]
 
The next century came to be known as the period of the "[[Five Good Emperors]]", in which the successions were peaceful and the Empire was prosperous. Each emperor of this period was adopted by his predecessor. The last 2 of the "Five Good Emperors" and Commodus are also called [[Antonines]]. After his accession, [[Nerva]], who succeeded Domitian, set a new tone: he restored much confiscated property and involved the Roman Senate in his rule. In 112, Trajan marched on [[Armenia]] and annexed it to the Roman Empire. Then he turned south into [[Parthia]], taking several cities before declaring [[Mesopotamia]] a new province of the empire, and lamenting that he was too old to follow in the steps of [[Alexander the Great]]. During his rule, the Roman Empire was to its largest extent, and would never again advance so far to the east. [[Hadrian]]'s reign was marked by a general lack of major military conflicts, but he had to defend the vast territories that Trajan had acquired. [[Antoninus Pius]]'s reign was comparatively peaceful. During the reign of Marcus Aurelius, Germanic tribes launched many raids along the northern border. The period of the "Five Good Emperors" was brought to an end by the reign of [[Commodus]]. Commodus was the son of Marcus Aurelius, breaking the scheme of adoptive successors that had turned out so well. Commodus became paranoid and slipped into insanity before being murdered in 192.
 
The [[Severan Dynasty]], which lasted from 193 until 235, included several increasingly troubled reigns. A generally successful ruler, Septimius Severus, the first of the dynasty, cultivated the [[Roman army|army]]'s support and substituted equestrian officers for senators in key administrative positions. His son, [[Caracalla]], extended full Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire. Increasingly unstable and autocratic, Caracalla was assassinated by [[Macrinus]], who succeeded him, before being assassinated and succeeded by [[Elagabalus]]. [[Alexander Severus]], the last of the dynasty, was increasing unable to control the army, and was assassinated in 235. His death marked the end of the [[Pax Romana]], or "Roman Peace".
 
===Crisis of the Third Century and the later emperors (235&ndash;395)===
{{main|Crisis of the Third Century|Diocletian|Tetrarchy}}
The [[Crisis of the Third Century]] is a commonly applied name for the crumbling and near collapse of the Roman Empire between 235 and 284. During this time, 25 emperors reigned, and the empire experienced extreme military, political, and economic crises. This period ended with the accession of [[Diocletian]], who reigned from 284 until 305, and who solved many of the acute problems experienced during this crisis. However, the core problems would remain and cause the eventual destruction of the western empire. Diocletian saw the vast empire as ungovernable, and therefore split the empire in half and created two equal emperors to rule under the title of [[Augustus (honorific)|''Augustus'']]. In doing so, he effectively created what would become the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire. In 293 authority was further divided, as each ''Augustus'' took a junior Emperor called a [[Caesar (title)|''Caesar'']] to provide a line of succession. This constituted what is now known as the [[Tetrarchy]] ("rule of four"). The transitions of this period mark the beginnings of [[Late Antiquity]].
 
The Tetrarchy would effectively collapse with the death of [[Constantius Chlorus]], the first of the [[Constantinian dynasty]], in 306. Constantius's troops immediately proclaimed his son [[Constantine I|Constantine the Great]] as ''Augustus''. A series of civil wars broke, which ended with the entire empire being united under Constantine, who legalised Christianity definitively in 313 through the ''[[Edict of Milan]]''. In 361, after decades of further civil war, [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] became emperor. His [[edict]] of toleration in 362 ordered the reopening of pagan [[Temple (Roman)|temples]], and, more problematically for the [[Christian Church]], the recalling of previously exiled Christian [[bishop]]s. Julian eventually resumed the war against [[Shapur II]] of Persia, although he received a mortal wound in battle and died in 363. His officers then elected [[Jovian]] emperor. Jovian is remembered for ceding terrorities won from the Persians, dating back to [[Trajan]], and for restoring the privileges of Christianity, before dying in 364.
[[File:Venice – The Tetrarchs 03.jpg|thumb|right|upright|''The Tetrarchs'', a [[porphyry (geology)|porphyry]] [[sculpture]] sacked from a [[Byzantine architecture|Byzantine]] palace in 1204, Treasury of [[Mark the Evangelist|St Mark's]], [[Venice]]]]
 
Upon Jovian's death, [[Valentinian I]], the first of the [[Valentinian dynasty]], was elected Augustus, and chose his brother [[Valens]] to serve as his co-emperor. In 365, [[Procopius (usurper)|Procopius]] managed to bribe two [[Roman legion|legions]], who then proclaimed him Augustus. War between the two rival Eastern Roman Emperors continued until Procopius was defeated, although in 367, eight-year-old [[Gratian]] was proclaimed emperor by the other two. In 375 Valentinian I led his army in a campaign against a [[Germanic tribes|Germanic tribe]], but died shortly thereafter. Succession did not go as planned. Gratian was then a 16-year-old and arguably ready to act as Emperor, but the troops proclaimed his infant half-brother emperor under the title [[Valentinian II]], and Gratian acquiesced.
 
Meanwhile, the Eastern Roman Empire faced its own problems with Germanic tribes. One tribe fled their former lands and sought refuge in the Eastern Roman Empire. Valens let them settle on the southern bank of the Danube in 376, but they soon revolted against their Roman hosts. Valens personally led a campaign against them in 378. However this campaign proved disastrous for the Romans. The two armies approached each other near [[Adrianople]], but Valens was apparently overconfident of the numerical superiority of his own forces over the enemy. Valens, eager to have all of the glory for himself, rushed into battle, and on 9 August 378, the [[Battle of Adrianople]] resulted in a crushing defeat for the Romans, and the death of Valens. Contemporary historian [[Ammianus Marcellinus]] estimated that two thirds of the Roman army were lost in the battle. The battle had far-reaching consequences, as veteran soldiers and valuable administrators were among the heavy casualties, which left the Empire with the problem of finding suitable leadership. Gratian was now effectively responsible for the whole of the Empire. He sought however a replacement Augustus for the Eastern Roman Empire, and in 379 choose [[Theodosius I]].
 
Theodosius, the founder of the [[Theodosian dynasty]], proclaimed his five year old son [[Arcadius]] an Augustus in 383 in an attempt to secure succession. [[Hispanic]] [[Celt]] general [[Magnus Maximus]], stationed in [[Roman Britain]], was proclaimed Augustus by his troops in 383 and rebelled against Gratian when he invaded [[Gaul]]. Gratian fled, but was assassinated. Following Gratian's death, Maximus had to deal with Valentinian II, at the time only twelve years old, as the senior Augustus. Maximus soon entered negotiations with Valentinian II and Theodosius, attempting to gain their official recognition, although Negotiations were unfruitful. Theodosius campaigned west in 388 and was victorious against Maximus, who was then captured and executed. In 392 [[Valentinian II]] was murdered, and shortly thereafter [[Arbogast (general)|Arbogast]] arranged for the appointment of [[Eugenius]] as emperor. However, the eastern emperor Theodosius I refused to recognise Eugenius as emperor and invaded the West, defeating and killing Arbogast and Eugenius. He thus reunited the entire Roman Empire under his rule. Theodosius was the last Emperor who ruled over the whole Empire. As emperor, he made Christianity the official religion of the Roman Empire. After his death in 395, he gave the two halves of the Empire to his two sons [[Arcadius]] and [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]]. The Roman state would continue to have two different emperors with different seats of power throughout the 5th century, though the Eastern Romans considered themselves Roman in full. The two halves were nominally, culturally and historically, if not politically, the same state.
 
===Decline of the Western Roman Empire (395&ndash;476)===
{{main|Decline of the Roman Empire|Migration Period}}
[[Image:Invasions of the Roman Empire 1.png|left|thumb|250px|[[Barbarian#A functional definition|Barbarian]] invasions of the Roman Empire, showing the Battle of Adrianople.]]
After 395, the emperors in the [[Western Roman Empire]] were usually figureheads, while the actual rulers were military strongmen. The year 476 is generally accepted as the formal end of the Western Roman Empire. That year, Orestes refused the request of Germanic mercenaries in his service for lands in Italy. The dissatisfied mercenaries, led by [[Odoacer]], revolted, and deposed the last western emperor, Romulus Augustus. This event has traditionally been considered the fall of the Western Roman Empire. Odoacer quickly conquered the remaining provinces of Italy, and then sent the Imperial Regalia back to the Eastern Roman Emperor [[Zeno]]. Zeno soon received two deputations. One was from Odoacer, requesting that his control of Italy be formally recognised by the Empire, in which case he would acknowledge Zeno's supremacy. The other deputation was from [[Nepos]], the emperor before Romulus Augustus, asking for support to regain the throne. Zeno granted Odoacer's request. Upon Nepos's death in 480, Zeno claimed Dalmatia for the East. Odoacer attacked Dalmatia, and the ensuing war ended with [[Theodoric the Great]], King of the [[Ostrogoths]], conquering Italy.
 
The Empire became gradually less Romanised and increasingly Germanic in nature: although the Empire buckled under Visigothic assault, the overthrow of the last Emperor [[Romulus Augustus]] was carried out by federated Germanic troops from within the Roman army rather than by foreign troops. In this sense had Odoacer not renounced the title of Emperor and named himself "King of Italy" instead, the Empire might have continued in name. Its identity, however, was no longer Roman – it was increasingly populated and governed by Germanic peoples long before 476. The Roman people were by the fifth century "''bereft of their military ethos''"<ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 285</ref> and the Roman army itself a mere supplement to federated troops of Goths, Huns, Franks and others fighting on their behalf. Many theories have been advanced in explanation of the [[decline of the Roman Empire]], and many dates given for its fall, from the onset of its decline in the third century<ref>Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 361</ref> to the fall of Constantinople in 1453.<ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 231</ref> Militarily, however, the Empire finally fell after first being overrun by various non-Roman peoples and then having its heart in Italy seized by Germanic troops in a revolt. The historicity and exact dates are uncertain, and some historians do not consider that the Empire fell at this point. Disagreement persists since the decline of the Empire had been a long and gradual process rather than a single event.
 
===Eastern Roman Empire (476&ndash;1453)===
{{main|Eastern Roman Empire}}
[[Image:Eastrome480AD.JPG|thumb|right|250px|Eastern Roman Empire and Barbarian Kingdoms in 480]]
As the Western Roman Empire declined during the 5th century, the richer Eastern Roman Empire would be relieved of much destruction, and in the mid 6th century the Eastern Roman Empire (known also as the [[Byzantine Empire]]) under the emperor [[Justinian I]] reconquered [[Italy]] and parts of [[Illyria]] from the [[Ostrogoths]], North Africa from the [[Vandals]], and southern [[Hispania]] from the [[Visigoths]]. The reconquest of southern Hispania was somewhat ephemeral, but North Africa served the [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantines]] for another century, parts of Italy for another 5 centuries, and parts Illyria even longer.
 
Of the many accepted dates for the end of the classical Roman state, the latest is 610. This is when the Emperor [[Heraclius]] made sweeping reforms, forever changing the face of the empire. Greek was readopted as the language of government and Latin influence waned. By 610, the Eastern Roman Empire had come under definite Greek influence, and could be considered to have become what many modern historians now call the [[Byzantine Empire]]; however, the Empire was never called thus by its inhabitants, who used terms such as ''Romania'', ''Basileia Romaion'' or ''Pragmata Romaion'', meaning "Land of the Romans", "Kingdom of the Romans", and who still saw themselves as Romans, and their state as the rightful successor to the ancient empire of Rome. The sack of Constantinople at the hands of the [[Fourth Crusade]] in 1204 is sometimes used to date the end of Eastern Roman Empire: the destruction of Constantinople and most of its ancient treasures, total discontinuity of leadership, and the division of its lands into rival states with a Catholic-controlled "Emperor" in Constantinople itself was a blow from which the Empire never fully recovered. Nevertheless, the [[Byzantines]] continued to call themselves Romans until their fall to [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]] in 1453. That year the eastern part of the Roman Empire was ultimately ended by the [[Fall of Constantinople]]. Even though [[Mehmed II]], the conqueror of Constantinople, declared himself the Emperor of the Roman Empire (''Caesar of Rome / Kayser-i Rum'') in 1453, [[Constantine XI]] is usually considered the last Roman Emperor. The Greek ethnic self-descriptive name ''Roman'' survives to this day.
 
==Military history==
{{main|Campaign history of the Roman military}}
===Principate (27 BC–AD 235)===
 
{{campaignbox Roman conquest of Britain}}
{{Campaignbox Boudica's Uprising}}
{{Campaignbox Germanic Wars}}
{{Campaignbox Dacian Wars}}
{{Campaignbox Armenian Wars}}
 
Between the reigns of the emperors [[Augustus]] and [[Trajan]], the Roman Empire achieved great territorial gains in both the East and the West. In the West, following several defeats in 16 BC,<ref name="nameOfRomeP244">Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 244</ref> Roman armies pushed north and east out of Gaul to subdue much of Germania. Despite the loss of a large army almost to the man in [[Publius Quinctilius Varus|Varus]]' famous defeat in the [[Battle of the Teutoburg Forest]] in AD 9,<ref>Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 245</ref><ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 159</ref><ref>Clunn, ''In Quest of the Lost Legions'', p. xv</ref> Rome recovered and continued its expansion up to and beyond the borders of the known world. The Romans [[Roman conquest of Britain|invaded Britain]] in 43 AD,<ref name="englishspeakingP4">Churchill, ''A History of the English Speaking Peoples'', p. 4</ref> forcing their way inland,<ref>Churchill, ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples'', p. 5</ref> and building two military bases to protect against rebellion and incursions from the north, from which Roman troops built and manned [[Hadrian's Wall]].<ref>Churchill, ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples'', p. 10</ref> Emperor [[Claudius]] ordered the suspension of further attacks across the Rhine,<ref name="nameOfRomeP269">Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 269</ref> setting what was to become the permanent limit of the Empire's expansion in this direction.<ref name="luttwakP38">Luttwak, ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', p. 38</ref> Further east, [[Trajan]] turned his attention to [[Dacia]].<ref>Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 322</ref><ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 213</ref><ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 215</ref> Following an uncertain number of battles, Trajan marched into Dacia,<ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 222</ref> besieged the Dacian capital and razed it to the ground.<ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 223</ref> With Dacia quelled, Trajan subsequently [[Roman-Parthian Wars#Roman Empire vs Parthia|invaded the Parthian empire]] to the east, his conquests taking the Roman Empire to its greatest extent.
 
{{Campaignbox Year of the Four Emperors}}
 
In 69 AD, [[Marcus Salvius Otho]] had the Emperor [[Galba]] murdered<ref>Tacitus, ''The Histories'', Book 1, ch. 41</ref><ref>Plutarch, ''Lives'', Galba</ref> and claimed the throne for himself,<ref name="luttwakP51">Luttwak, ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', p. 51</ref><ref name="classicalworldP542">Lane Fox, ''The Classical World'', p. 542</ref> but [[Vitellius]] had also claimed the throne.<ref>Tacitus, ''The Histories'', Book 1, ch. 57</ref><ref name="livesotho">Plutarch, ''Lives'', Otho</ref> Otho left Rome, and met Vitellius at the [[First Battle of Bedriacum]],<ref name="grandstrategyP52">Luttwak, ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', p. 52</ref> after which the Othonian troops fled back to their camp,<ref>Tacitus, ''The Histories'', Book 1, ch. 44</ref> and the next day surrendered to the Vitellian forces.<ref>Tacitus, ''The Histories'', Book 1, ch. 49</ref> Meanwhile, the forces stationed in the Middle East provinces of [[Iudaea Province|Judaea]] and [[Syria (Roman province)|Syria]] had acclaimed [[Vespasian]] as emperor.<ref name="grandstrategyP52"/> Vespasians' and Vitellius' armies met in the [[Second Battle of Bedriacum]],<ref name="grandstrategyP52"/><ref>Tactitus, ''The Histories'', Book 3, ch. 18</ref> after which the Vitellian troops were driven back into their camp.<ref>Tactitus, ''The Histories'', Book 3, ch. 25</ref> Vespasian, having successfully ended the civil war, was declared emperor.
 
{{Campaignbox Jewish-Roman wars}}
{{Campaignbox First Jewish-Roman War}}
The first Jewish-Roman War, sometimes called The Great Revolt, was the first of three major rebellions by the Jews of Judaea Province against the Roman Empire.<ref name="nameOfRomeP294">Goldsworthy, ''In the Name of Rome'', p. 294</ref> Earlier Jewish successes against Rome only attracted greater attention from Emperor Nero, who appointed general Vespasian to crush the rebellion. By the year 68, Jewish resistance in the North had been crushed.<ref>Santosuosso, ''Storming the Heavens'', p. 146</ref><ref>Luttwak, ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', p. 3</ref> In 115, revolt broke out again in the province, leading to the second Jewish-Roman war known as the [[Kitos War]], and again in 132 in what is known as [[Bar Kokhba's revolt]]. Both were brutally crushed.
 
{{Campaignbox Roman-Parthian Wars}}
Due in large part to their employment of powerful heavy cavalry and mobile horse-archers, the [[Parthian Empire]] was the most formidable enemy of the Roman Empire in the east. Trajan had campaigned against the Parthians and briefly captured their capital, putting a puppet ruler on the throne, but the territories were abandoned. A revitalised Parthian Empire renewed its assault in 161, and defeated two Roman armies. General [[Gaius Avidius Cassius]] was sent in 162 to counter the resurgent Parthia. The Parthian city of Seleucia on the Tigris was destroyed, and the Parthians made peace but were forced to cede western Mesopotamia to the Romans.<ref name="historyP273">Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 273</ref> In 197, Emperor [[Septimius Severus]] waged a brief and successful war against the Parthian Empire, during which time the Parthian capital was sacked, and the northern half of Mesopotamia was restored to Rome. Emperor [[Caracalla]] marched on Parthia in 217 from Edessa to begin a war against them, but he was assassinated while on the march.<ref name="historyP279">Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 279</ref> In 224, the Parthian Empire was crushed not by the Romans but by the rebellious Persian vassal king Ardashir, who revolted, leading to the establishment of [[Sassanid Empire]] of Persia, which replaced Parthia as Rome's major rival in the East.
 
=== Dominate (235–395) ===
{{Campaignbox Rome against the Alamanni}}
{{Campaignbox Gothic Migration}}
{{Campaignbox Frankish Migration}}
{{Campaignbox Early Vandal Migration}}
Although the exact historicity is unclear, some mix of Germanic peoples, Celts, and tribes of mixed Celto-Germanic ethnicity were settled in the lands of Germania from the first century onwards. The essential problem of large tribal groups on the frontier remained much the same as the situation Rome faced in earlier centuries, the third century saw a marked increase in the overall threat.<ref>Luttwak, ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', p. 146</ref><ref>Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 282</ref> The assembled warbands of the Alamanni frequently crossed the border, attacking Germania Superior such that they were almost continually engaged in conflicts with the Roman Empire. However, their first major assault deep into Roman territory didn't come until 268. In that year the Romans were forced to denude much of their German frontier of troops in response to a massive invasion by another new Germanic tribal confederacy, the [[Goths]], from the east. The pressure of tribal groups pushing into the Empire was the end result of a chain of migrations with its roots far to the east.<ref>Gibbon, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', p. 624</ref> The Alamanni seized the opportunity to launch a major invasion of Gaul and northern Italy. However, the Visigoths were defeated in battle that summer and then routed in the [[Battle of Naissus]].<ref name="historyP285">Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 285</ref> The Goths remained a major threat to the Empire but directed their attacks away from Italy itself for several years after their defeat.
[[Image:Alemanni expansion.png|left|thumb|305px|Area settled by the Alamanni, and sites of Roman-Alamannic battles, 3rd to 6th century]]
 
The Alamanni on the other hand resumed their drive towards Italy almost immediately. They defeated [[Aurelian]] at the [[Battle of Placentia]] in 271 but were beaten back for a short time, only to reemerge fifty years later. In 378 the [[Goths]] inflicted a crushing defeat on the Eastern Empire at the [[Battle of Adrianople]].<ref>Ammianus Marcellinus, ''Historiae'', book 31.</ref><ref>Jordanes, ''The Origins and Deeds of the Goths'', 138.</ref> At the same time, [[Franks]] raided through the North Sea and the [[English Channel]],<ref>Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 284</ref> [[Vandals]] pressed across the Rhine, [[Iuthungi]] against the Danube, [[Iazyges]], [[Carpians|Carpi]] and [[Taifali]] harassed Dacia, and [[Gepids]] joined the Goths and Heruli in attacks round the Black Sea.<ref name="grandStrategyP149">Luttwak, ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', p. 149</ref> At the start of the fifth century AD, the pressure on Rome's western borders was growing intense.
 
{{Campaignbox Crisis of the Third Century}}
{{Campaignbox Constantine Wars}}
A military that was often willing to support its commander over its emperor meant that commanders could establish sole control of the army they were responsible for and usurp the imperial throne. The so-called [[Crisis of the Third Century]] describes the turmoil of murder, usurpation and in-fighting that is traditionally seen as developing with the murder of the Emperor [[Alexander Severus]] in 235.<ref name="grantP280">Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 280</ref> Emperor [[Septimius Severus]] was forced to deal with two rivals for the throne: [[Pescennius Niger]] and then [[Clodius Albinus]]. Severus' successor [[Caracalla]] passed uninterrupted for a while until he was murdered by [[Macrinus]],<ref name="declineP129">Gibbon, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', p. 129</ref> who proclaimed himsef emperor in his place. The troops of [[Elagabalus]] declared him to be emperor instead, and the two met in battle at the [[Battle of Antioch (218)|Battle of Antioch]] in 218 AD, in which Macrinus was defeated.<ref name="declineP130">Gibbon, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', p. 130</ref> However, Elagabalus was murdered shortly afterwards<ref name="declineP130"/> and [[Alexander Severus]] was proclaimed emperor who, after a short reign, was murdered in turn.<ref name="declineP130"/> His murderers raised in his place [[Maximinus Thrax]]. However, just as he had been raised by the army, Maximinus was also brought down by them and was murdered<ref>Gibbon, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', p. 131</ref> when it appeared to his forces as though he would not be able to best the senatorial candidate for the throne, [[Gordian III]].
 
Gordian III's fate is not certain, although he may have been murdered by his own successor, [[Philip the Arab]], who ruled for only a few years before the army again raised a general to proclaimed emperor, this time [[Decius]], who defeated Philip in the [[Battle of Verona]] to seize the throne.<ref>Gibbon, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', p. 135</ref> [[Gallienus]], emperor from 260 AD to 268 AD, saw a [[Gallienus usurpers|remarkable array of usurpers]]. [[Diocletian]], a usurper himself, defeated [[Carinus]] to become emperor. Some small measure of stability again returned at this point, with the empire split into a Tetrarchy of two greater and two lesser emperors, a system that staved off civil wars for a short time until 312 AD. In that year, relations between the tetrarchy collapsed for good. From 314 AD onwards, [[Constantine the Great]] defeated Licinius in a series of battles. Constantine then turned to Maxentius, beating him in the [[Battle of Verona (312)|Battle of Verona]] and the [[Battle of Milvian Bridge]].
 
{{Campaignbox Roman-Sassanid Wars}}
After overthrowing the Parthian confederacy,<ref name="historyP283">Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 283</ref><ref name="luttwakP128">Luttwak, ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', p. 128</ref> the [[Sassanid Empire]] that arose from its remains pursued a more aggressive expansionist policy than their predecessors<ref name="enemiesP234">Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 234</ref><ref name="grandStrategyP151">Luttwak, ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', p. 151</ref> and continued to make war against Rome. In 230, the first Sassanid emperor attacked Roman territory,<ref name="grandStrategyP151"/> and in 243, Emperor [[Gordian III]]'s army defeated the Sassanids at the [[Battle of Resaena]].<ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 235</ref> In 253 the Sassanids under [[Shapur I]] penetrated deeply into Roman territory, defeating a Roman force at the [[Battle of Barbalissos]]<ref name="enemiesP236">Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 236</ref> and conquering and plundering [[Antiochia]].<ref name="enemiesP236"/><ref name="historyP283"/> In 260 at the [[Battle of Edessa]] the Sassanids defeated the Roman army<ref name="enemiesP237">Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 237</ref> and captured the Roman Emperor [[Valerian (emperor)|Valerian]].<ref name="grandStrategyP151"/><ref name="historyP283"/> There was a lasting peace between Rome and the Sassanid Empire between 297 and 337 following a treaty between [[Narseh]] and Emperor [[Diocletian]]. However, just before the death of [[Constantine I]] in 337, [[Shapur II]] broke the peace and began a twenty-six year conflict, attempting with little success to conquer Roman fortresses in the region. Emperor [[Julian the Apostate|Julian]] met Shapur in 363 in the [[Battle of Ctesiphon (363)|Battle of Ctesiphon]] outside the walls of the Persian capital. The Romans were victorious but were unable to take the city and were forced to retreat. There were several future wars, although all brief and small-scale.
 
===Collapse of the Western Empire (395–476)===
[[Image:476eur.jpg|thumb|left|305px|Europe in 476, from ''Muir's Historical Atlas'' (1911).]]
{{Campaignbox Fall of Western Roman Empire}}
 
Western Empire's last gasp began when the Visigoths revolted around 395 AD.<ref>Jordanes, ''The Origins and Deeds of the Goths'', 147</ref> Led by [[Alaric I]],<ref name="historyofwarsB3P1C2">Procopius, ''History of the Wars'', Book 3, Pt 1, Ch. 2</ref> in 402 AD they besieged Mediolanum, the capital of Roman Emperor [[Honorius (emperor)|Honorius]]. The arrival of the Roman [[Stilicho]] and his army forced Alaric to relieve the siege and move towards Hasta (modern Asti) in western Italy, where Stilicho attacked it at the [[Battle of Pollentia]],<ref>Gibbon, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', p. 563</ref><ref>Jordanes, ''The Origins and Deeds of the Goths'', 154</ref> capturing Alaric's camp. Stilicho again attacked at the [[Battle of Verona]]<ref>Gibbon, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', p. 565</ref> and again defeated Alaric,<ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 263</ref> forcing him to withdraw from Italy. In 405 AD, the Ostrogoths invaded Italy itself, but were defeated. However, in 406 AD an unprecedented number of tribes took advantage of the freezing of the Rhine to cross ''en masse'', encountering little resistance<ref>Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 324</ref> and completely over-running Gaul. Despite this grave danger, or perhaps because of it, the Roman army continued to be wracked by usurpation.<ref name="historyP327">Grant, ''The History of Rome'', p. 327</ref>
 
It is in this climate that, despite his earlier setback, Alaric returned again in 410 and managed to [[Sack of Rome (410)|sack Rome]].<ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 267</ref><ref>Gibbon, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', p. 589</ref><ref name="historyofwarsB3P1C2">Jordanes, ''The Origins and Deeds of the Goths'', 156</ref> The Roman capital had by this time moved to the Italian city of [[Ravenna]],<ref>Gibbon, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', p. 587</ref> but some historians view 410 as an alternative date for the true fall of the Roman Empire.<ref>Wood, ''In Search of the First Civilizations'', p. 177</ref> Without possession of Rome or many of its former provinces, and increasingly Germanic in nature, the Roman Empire after 410 had little in common with the earlier Empire. By 410 AD, Britain had been mostly denuded of Roman troops,<ref>Gibbon, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', p. 560</ref><ref>Churchill, ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples'', p. 16</ref> and by 425 AD was no longer part of the Empire,<ref name="historyofwarsB3P1C2"/> and much of western Europe was beset "by all kinds of calamities and disasters",<ref>Churchill, ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples'', p. 17</ref> coming under barbarian kingdoms ruled by [[Vandals]], [[Suebians]], [[Visigoths]] and [[Burgundians]].<ref name="stormingP187">Santosuosso, ''Storming the Heavens'', p. 187</ref>
 
The remainder of Rome's territory, if not its nature, was defended for several decades following 410 largely by [[Flavius Aëtius]], who managed to play off each of Rome's barbarian invaders against one another. In 436 he led a Hunnic army against the Visigoths at the Battle of Arles, and again in 436 at the [[Battle of Narbonne (436)|Battle of Narbonne]]. In 451 he led a combined army, including his former enemy the Visigoths, against the Huns at the [[Battle of the Catalaunian Plains]].<ref>Matyszak, ''The Enemies of Rome'', p. 276</ref><ref>Gibbon, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', p. 489</ref><ref>Jordanes, ''The Origins and Deeds of the Goths'', 197</ref> Despite being the only clear champion of the Empire at this point Aëtius was slain by the Emperor [[Valentinian III]]'s own hand, leading [[Sidonius Apollinaris]] to observe, "I am ignorant, sir, of your motives or provocations; I only know that you have acted like a man who has cut off his right hand with his left".<ref>Gibbon, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', ch. 35</ref>
 
Carthage, the second largest city in the empire, was lost along with much of North Africa in 439 to the Vandals,<ref>Gibbon, ''The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', p. 618</ref><ref name="historyofwarsB3P1C4">Procopius, ''History of the Wars'', Book 3, Pt 1, Ch. 4</ref> and the fate of Rome seemed sealed. By 476, what remained of the Empire was completely in the hands of federated Germanic troops and when they revolted under [[Odoacer]] and deposed Emperor [[Romulus Augustus]]<ref name="jordanes243">Jordanes, ''The Origins and Deeds of the Goths'', 243</ref> there was nobody to stop them. Odoacer happened to hold the part of the Empire around Italy and Rome but other parts of the Empire were ruled by Visigoths, Ostrogoths, Franks, Alans and others. The Empire in the West had fallen,<ref name="stormingP187"/><ref name="jordanes243"/> and its remnant in Italy was no longer Roman in its political nature. The [[Eastern Roman Empire|Eastern Empire]] (mostly known in modern times as "Byzantine Empire") and the Goths continued to fight over Rome and the surrounding area for many years, though by this point Rome's importance was negligible. For the subsequent events in Roman military history, see [[Byzantine military|Byzantine military history]].
 
==Legacy==
The American magazine ''National Geographic ''described the legacy of the Roman Empire in ''The World According to Rome'':
{{quote|The enduring Roman influence is reflected pervasively in contemporary language, literature, legal codes, government, architecture, engineering, medicine, sports, arts, etc. Much of it is so deeply inbedded that we barely notice our debt to ancient Rome. Consider language, for example. Fewer and fewer people today claim to know Latin - and yet, go back to the first sentence in this paragraph. If we removed all the words drawn directly from Latin, that sentence would read; "The."<ref>Reid (1997), p. 54.</ref>{{#tag:ref|The final statement is not entirely accurate (in terms of the linguistic etymology): many words with Latin roots, such as ''engineering'' and ''sports'', were borrowed from French[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=engineer][http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=sport] and were thus derived indirectly, while the main verb and the preposition in the first sentence are native English forms. However, the point pertaining to the pervading influence is valid.|group=nb}} }}
 
Several states claimed to be the Roman Empire's successors after the fall of the [[Western Roman Empire]]. The [[Holy Roman Empire]], an attempt to resurrect the Empire in the West, was established in 800 when [[Pope Leo III]] crowned [[Franks|Frankish]] King [[Charlemagne]] as [[Roman Emperor]] on [[Christmas Day]], though the empire and the imperial office did not become formalised for some decades. After the fall of [[Constantinople]], the [[Muscovy|Russian Tsardom]], as inheritor of the Byzantine Empire's [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christian]] tradition, counted itself the third Rome (with Constantinople having been the second). And when the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]]s, who based their state on the Byzantine model, took Constantinople in 1453, [[Mehmed II]] established his capital there and claimed to sit on the throne of the Roman Empire, and he even went so far as to launch an invasion of Italy with the purpose of "re-uniting the Empire", although [[Papal States|Papal]] and [[Neapolitan]] armies stopped his march on Rome at [[Otranto]] in 1480. Constantinople was not officially renamed [[Istanbul]] until 28 March 1930.
 
Excluding these states claiming its heritage, if the traditional date for the founding of Rome is accepted as fact, the Roman state can be said to have lasted in some form from 753 BC to the fall in 1461 of the [[Empire of Trebizond]] (a successor state and fragment of the Byzantine Empire which escaped conquest by the Ottomans in 1453), for a total of 2,214 years. The Roman impact on Western and Eastern civilisations lives on. In time most of the Roman achievements were duplicated by later civilisations. For example, the technology for [[cement]] was rediscovered 1755–1759 by [[John Smeaton]].
 
The Empire contributed many things to the world, such as a calendar with [[leap year]]s, the institutions of [[Christianity]] and aspects of modern [[Neoclassical architecture|neo-classicistic]] and [[Byzantine architecture]]. The extensive system of roads that was constructed by the [[Roman Army]] lasts to this day. Because of this network of roads, the time necessary to travel between destinations in [[Europe]] did not decrease until the 19th century, when steam power was invented. Even modern [[astrology]] comes to us directly from the Romans.
 
The Roman Empire also contributed its form of government, which influences various constitutions including those of most [[Europe|European countries]] and many former European colonies. In the [[United States]], for example, the framers of the [[United States Constitution|Constitution]] remarked, in creating the [[Presidency]], that they wanted to inaugurate an "Augustan Age". The modern world also inherited legal thinking from [[Roman law]], fully codified in [[Late Antiquity]]. Governing a vast territory, the Romans developed the science of [[public administration]] to an extent never before conceived or necessary, creating an extensive civil service and formalised methods of tax collection.
 
While in the West the term Roman acquired a new meaning in connection with the church and the [[Pope]] of [[Rome]] the Greek form [[Romaioi]] remained attached to the Greek-speaking Christian population of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] and is still used by [[Greeks]] in addition to their common appellation).<ref>Encyclopedia Britannica,History of Europe, The Romans, 2008, O.Ed.</ref>
 
The Roman Empire's territorial legacy of controlling the Italian peninsula would serve as an influence to Italian nationalism and the unification (''[[Risorgimento]]'') of Italy in 1861.
 
==See also==
*[[History of the Roman Empire]]
*[[Decline of the Roman Empire]]
*[[Roman Architecture]]
*[[Migration Period]]
 
== Notes ==
;footnotes
{{Reflist|group=nb}}
;citations
{{Reflist|2}}
 
== References ==
*{{citebook|author=[[Frank Frost Abbott]]|year=1901|title=A History and Description of Roman Political Institutions|publisher=Elibron Classics|isbn=0-543-92749-0}}
*[[John Bagnell Bury]], ''A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the death of Marcus Aurelius'', 1913, ISBN 978-1436734165
*[[Winston Churchill]], ''A History of the English-Speaking Peoples'', Cassell, 1998, ISBN 0-304-34912-7
*[[J. A. Crook]], ''Law and Life of Rome, 90 BC–AD 212'', 1967, ISBN 0-8014-9273-4
*[[Donald R. Dudley]], ''The Civilization of Rome'', 2nd ed., 1985, ISBN 0-452-01016-0
*[[Arther Ferrill]], ''The Fall of the Roman Empire: The Military Explanation'', [[Thames and Hudson]], 1988, ISBN 0-500-27495-9
*{{cite book
  |last=Freeman
  |first=Charles
  |title=The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World
  |publisher=Penguin
  |location=New York
  |year=1999
  |isbn=0-670-88515-0
}}
*[[Edward Gibbon]], ''The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire'', [[1776–1788]]
*[[Adrian Goldsworthy]], ''The Punic Wars'', Cassell & Co, 2000, ISBN 0-304-35284-5
*[[Adrian Goldsworthy]], ''In the Name of Rome: The Men Who Won the Roman Empire'', Weidenfield and Nicholson, 2003, ISBN 0-297-84666-3
*[[Adrian Goldsworthy]], ''The Complete Roman Army'', [[Thames and Hudson]], 2003, ISBN 0-500-05124-0
*[[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]], ''The History of Rome'', [[Faber and Faber]], 1993, ISBN 0-571-11461-X
*[[Tom Holland]], ''Rubicon'', [[Little Brown]], 2003, ISBN 0-316-86130-8
*[[Andrew Lintott]], ''Imperium Romanum: Politics and administration'', 1993, ISBN 0-415-09375-9
*[[Edward Luttwak]], ''The Grand Strategy of the Roman Empire'', [[Johns Hopkins University Press]], ISBN 0-8018-2158-4
* {{cite journal
| first=T.R.
| last=Reid
| title=The World According to Rome
| journal = National Geographic
| volume=192
| issue=2
| pages=54-83
| year=1997
| url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/
}}
*[[Antonio Santosuosso]], ''Storming the Heavens: Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians in the Roman Empire'', Westview Press, 2001, ISBN 0-8133-3523-X
{{refend}}
<div class="references-small">
</div>
 
==External links==
{{sisterlinks}}
* [http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5i11rv1ezJ_9hlqSjJfzxr1A5wryQ Roman battlefield unearthed deep inside Germany]
*[http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/romans BBC Romans for Children]
*[http://classicsunveiled.com/romeh/ Classics Unveiled]
*[http://www.euratlas.com/history_europe/europe_map_0100.html Complete map of the Roman Empire in year 100]
*[http://roman-empire.info Detailed history of the Roman Empire]
*[http://tacitus.nu/historical-atlas/rome.htm Historical Atlas] (Swedish)
*[http://romancoins.info Roman Numismatic Gallery ]
*[http://resourcesforhistory.com The Celts and Romans]
*[http://roman-empire.net The Roman Empire]
*[http://pbs.org/empires/romans/index.html The Roman Empire in the First Century] from PBS
*[http://www.crystalinks.com/romanempire.html The Roman Empire System]
*[http://www.wikitimescale.org/en/wiki/Imperium_Romanum Timeline of the Roman Empire and its split] on [[WikiTimeScale]].
*[http://www.unrv.com/ UNRV Roman History]
*[http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/jod/wola.html Worlds of Late Antiquity website:] links, bibliographies: [[Augustine of Hippo|Augustine]], [[Anicius Manlius Severinus Boethius|Boethius]], [[Cassiodorus]] etc.
----
{{Ancient Rome topics}}
{{Roman history by territory}}
{{Ancient Greek and Roman Wars}}
{{Empires}}
 
[[Category:Former countries on the Italian Peninsula]]
[[Category:Roman Empire|*]]
 
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[[af:Romeinse Ryk]]
[[als:Römisches Reich]]
[[ang:Rōmānisce Rīce]]
[[ar:إمبراطورية رومانية]]
[[an:Imperio Román]]
[[arz:الامبراطورية الرومانية]]
[[ast:Imperiu Romanu]]
[[az:Roma İmperiyası]]
[[bn:রোমান সাম্রাজ্য]]
[[zh-min-nan:Lô-má Tè-kok]]
[[be:Рымская імперыя]]
[[be-x-old:Рымская Імпэрыя]]
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[[br:Impalaeriezh roman]]
[[bg:Римска империя]]
[[ca:Imperi Romà]]
[[cy:Yr Ymerodraeth Rufeinig]]
[[da:Romerriget]]
[[de:Römisches Reich]]
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[[es:Imperio romano]]
[[eo:Romia Imperio]]
[[eu:Erromatar Inperioa]]
[[fa:امپراتوری روم]]
[[fr:Empire romain]]
[[fy:Romeinske ryk]]
[[gl:Imperio Romano]]
[[hak:Lò-mâ Ti-koet]]
[[ko:로마 제국]]
[[hi:रोमन साम्राज्य]]
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[[id:Kekaisaran Romawi]]
[[ia:Imperio Roman]]
[[is:Rómverska keisaradæmið]]
[[it:Impero romano]]
[[he:הקיסרות הרומית]]
[[jv:Kakaisaran Romawi]]
[[ka:რომის იმპერია]]
[[kw:Emperoureth Romanek]]
[[sw:Dola la Roma]]
[[lad:Imperio Romano]]
[[la:Imperium Romanum]]
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[[jbo:latmo sosygugje'a]]
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[[mg:Empira Romana]]
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[[pt:Império Romano]]
[[crh:Roma İmperiyası]]
[[ro:Imperiul Roman]]
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[[ru:Римская империя]]
[[sm:Le Malo o Roma]]
[[sq:Perandoria Romake]]
[[scn:Mpèriu rumanu]]
[[simple:Roman Empire]]
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[[sl:Rimski imperij]]
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Revision as of 02:26, 20 February 2009

This article is about the term "Dalek Empire" as used in the Doctor Who Universe. For other uses of the term, see Dalek Empire (disambiguation).

The Daleks formed the Dalek Empire in an unknown period in their history, presumably after venturing into space from the planet Skaro. The Daleks would later seek to expand their empire into all of history as well, using time travel. It still centred itself around Skaro. (DW: The Evil of the Daleks, DW: Day of the Daleks)

During the Dalek Civil War, the Empire broke into a faction known as the Imperial Daleks, loyal to Davros (now calling himself the Emperor) and another, the Renegade Daleks, loyal to the Supreme Dalek. Waging war with each other, the Doctor seemed to have defeated both factions. (DW: Remembrance of the Daleks)

The Dalek Prime and Davros survived the war and encountered one another once more during a decline in Dalek pervasiveness throughout the galaxy. Davros was again defeated and the Dalek Prime began to rebuild the Empire. (EDA: War of the Daleks)

War of the Daleks however was so poorly received by fans that it's canonicity in the spin-off material is disputed, let alone towards the TV series.

By the Last Great Time War with the Time Lords of Gallifrey, the Daleks had once more re-unified their empire under the Emperor. (DW: Dalek).

Dalek Caan rescued Davros from the Time War in an attempt to recreate the Empire. The result was the New Dalek Empire. (DW:The Stolen Earth, DW:Journey's End)

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